1. Bright R. Cases and observations, illustrative of renal disease, accompanied with the secretion of albuminous urine. Guys Hosp Trans 1836:338- 79. [
PMCID]
2. Stevens PE, O'Donoghue DJ, de Lusignan S, Van Vlymen J, Klebe B, Middleton R, Hague N, New J, Farmer CK. Chronic kidney disease management in the United Kingdom: NEOERICA project results. Kidney Int 2007;72:92-9. [
DOI:10.1038/sj.ki.5002273]
3. Thompson S, James M, Wiebe N, Hemmelgarn B, Manns B, Klarenbach S, Tonelli M; Alberta Kidney Disease Network. Cause of death in patients with reduced kidney function. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015; 26:2504-11. [
DOI:10.1681/ASN.2014070714]
4. Webster AC, Nagler EV, Morton RL, Masson P. Chronic kidney disease. Lancet. 2017; 389:1238-52. [
DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32064-5]
5. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;32(5 suppl 3):S112-9. [
DOI:10.1053/ajkd.1998.v32.pm9820470]
6. Sjoblom P, Nystrom FH, Lanne T, Engvall J, Ostgren CJ. Microalbuminuria, but not reduced eGFR, is associated with cardiovascular subclinical organ damage in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2014;40:49-55. [
DOI:10.1016/j.diabet.2013.09.008]
7. Nasrallah R, Hassouneh R, Hébert RL. PGE2, kidney disease, and cardiovascular risk: beyond hypertension and diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2016;27:666-76. [
DOI:10.1681/ASN.2015050528]
8. Sedaghat S, Mattace-Raso FU, Hoorn EJ, et al. Arterial stiffness and decline in kidney function. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2015;10:2190-7. [
DOI:10.2215/CJN.03000315]
9. Wachtell K, Olsen MH. Is it time to change the definition of normal urinary albumin excretion? Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2008;4:650-51. [
DOI:10.1038/ncpneph0971]
10. Dalrymple LS, Katz R, Kestenbaum B , et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risk of end-stage renal disease versus death. J Gen Intern Med 2011;26:379-85. [
DOI:10.1007/s11606-010-1511-x]
11. Sparks MA, Crowley SD, Gurley SB, Mirotsou M, Coffman TM. Classical renin-Angiotensin system in kidney physiology. Compr Physiol 2014;4:1201-28. [
DOI:10.1002/cphy.c130040]
12. Lopez-Giacoman S, Madero M. Biomarkers in chronic kidney disease, from kidney function to kidney damage. World J Nephrol 2015; 4(1):57. [
DOI:10.5527/wjn.v4.i1.57]
13. Price AM, Ferro CJ, Hayer MK, Steeds RP, Edwards NC, Townend JN. Premature coronary artery disease and early stage chronic kidney disease. QJM In J Med 2018;111(10):683-6. [
DOI:10.1093/qjmed/hcx179]
14. Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Cushman M, et al. Cardiovascular mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: comparison of traditional and novel risk factors. JAMA 2005;293(14):1737-45. [
DOI:10.1001/jama.293.14.1737]
15. Nakamura K, Nakagawa H, Murakami Y, et al. Smoking increases the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2015;88(5):1144-52. [
DOI:10.1038/ki.2015.212]
16. Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Crump C, Bleyer AJ, Manolio TA, Tracy RP, Furberg CD, Psaty BM. Elevations of inflammatory and procoagulant biomarkers in elderly persons with renal insufficiency. Circulation 2013;107(1):87-92. [
DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000042700.48769.59]
17. Venugopal SK, Devaraj S, Yuhanna I, et al. Demonstration that C-reactive protein decreases eNOS expression and bioactivity in human aortic endothelial cells. Circulation 2002;106:1439-41. [
DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000033116.22237.F9]
18. Locatelli F, Marcelli D, Conte F, D'Amico M, Del Vecchio L, Limido A et al. Cardiovascular disease in chronic renal failure: the challenge continues. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000;15(Suppl 5):69-80 [
DOI:10.1093/ndt/15.suppl_5.69]
19. Foley RN, Parfey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;339:841-3. [
DOI:10.1053/ajkd.1998.v32.pm9820470]
20. Arici M, Walls J. End stage renal disease, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular mortality: Is C-reactive protein the missing link? Kidney Int 2001; 9:407-17. [
DOI:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.059002407.x]
21. Whaley-Connell AT, Sowers JR, Stevens LA, et al. CKD in the United States: Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP) and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey(NHANES) 1999-2004. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:S13-20. [
DOI:10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.12.016]
22. Muntner P, He J, Astor BC, et al. Traditional and nontraditional risk factors predict coronary heart disease in chronic kidney disease: results from the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:529-38. [
DOI:10.1681/ASN.2004080656]
23. Gansevoort RT, Correa-Rotter R, Hemmelgarn BR et al. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Lancet 2013;382:339-52. [
DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60595-4]
24. Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Cushman M, et al. Cardiovascular mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: comparison of traditional and novel risk factors. JAMA 2005;293:1737-45. [
DOI:10.1001/jama.293.14.1737]
25. Matsushita K, van der Velde M, Astor BC, et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet 2010;375(9731):2073-81. [
DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60674-5]
26. Cachofeiro V, Goicochea M, de Vinuesa SG, et al. Oxidative stress and inflammation, a link between chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. Kidney Int Suppl 2008;74:S4-S9. [
DOI:10.1038/ki.2008.516]
27. Orth SR, Hallan SI. Risk factor for progression of chronic kidney disease and for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in renal patients--absence of evidence or evidence ofAbsence? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3(1):226-36. [
DOI:10.2215/CJN.03740907]
28. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Coresh J et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor forCardiovascular outcomes in the elderly. Kidney Int 2003;63:1121-9. [
DOI:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00838.x]
29. Agharazii M, St-Louis R, Gautier-Bastien A, Ung RV, Mokas S, Larivière R, Richard DE. Inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species as mediators of chronic kidney disease-related vascular calcification. Am J Hypertens 2015;28:746-55. [
DOI:10.1093/ajh/hpu225]
30. Fujii H, Goto S, Fukagawa M. Role of uremic toxins for kidney, cardiovascular, and bone dysfunction. Toxins 2018;10:202-220. [
DOI:10.3390/toxins10050202]
31. Friedman AN, Hunsicker LG, Selhub J, et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of totalarteriosclerotic outcomes in type 2 diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2005;68:773-8. [
DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00456.x]
32. Albert MA, Glynn RJ, Ridker PM (2003) Plasma concentration of c-reactive protein and the calculated Framingham Coronary Heart Disease Risk Score. Circulation 108:161-5. [
DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000080289.72166.CF]
33. MENON V, GREENE T, WANG X, et al: C-reactive protein and serum albumin as predictors of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2005;68:766-72. [
DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00455.x]
34. Knight EL, Rimm EB, Pai JK, et al: Kidney dysfunction, inflammation, and coronary events: A prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:1897-1903. [
DOI:10.1097/01.ASN.0000128966.55133.69]
35. Stenvinkel P, Ketteler M, Johnson RJ, et al: IL-10, IL-6, and TNF alpha: Central factors in the altered cytokine network of uremia. The good, the bad, and the ugly. Kidney Int 2005;67:1216-33. [
DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00200.x]
36. Zwaka TP, Hombach V, Torzewski J. C-reactive protein-mediated low density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages: implications for atherosclerosis. Circulation 2001;103:1194-7. [
DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.103.9.1194]
37. Verma S, Wang CH, Li SH, et al. A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis. Circulation 2002;106:913-9. [
DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000029802.88087.5E]
38. Qamirani E, Ren Y, Kuo L, et al. C-reactive protein inhibits endothelium-dependent NO-mediated dilation in coronary arterioles by activating p38 kinase and NAD(P)H oxidase.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:995-1001. [
DOI:10.1161/01.ATV.0000159890.10526.1e]
39. Buglioni A, Burnett JC Jr. Pathophysiology and the cardiorenal connection in heart failure. Circulating hormones: biomarkers or mediators. Clin Chim Acta 2015;443:3-8. [
DOI:10.1016/j.cca.2014.10.027]
40. Kopel T, Kaufman JS, Hamburg N, Sampalis JS, Vita JA (2017) Dember LM. Endothelium-dependent and -independent vascular function in advanced chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol2017;12:1588-94. [
DOI:10.2215/CJN.12811216]
41. Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Elsayed EF, et al. The relationship between nontraditional risk factors and outcomes in individuals with stage 3 to 4 CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2008; 51(2):212-23. [
DOI:10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.10.035]
42. Kanbay M, Yilmaz MI, Sonmez A, et al. Serum uric acid independently predicts cardiovascular events in advanced nephropathy. Am J Nephrol 2012;36(4):324-31. [
DOI:10.1159/000342390]
43. Xia X, Zhao C, Peng FF, et al. Serum uric acid predicts cardiovascular mortality in male peritoneal dialysis patients with diabetes. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2016;26(1):20-6. [
DOI:10.1016/j.numecd.2015.10.011]
44. Li M, Hou W, Zhang X, Hu L, Tang Z. Hyperuricemia and risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Atherosclerosis 2014;232(2):265-70. [
DOI:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.051]
45. Wen CP, Cheng TY, Chan HT, Tsai MK, Chung IW, Tsai SP, Wu SB, Wen SF. Is High Serum Uric Acid a Risk Marker or a Target for Treatment? Examination of Individuals with Low Cardiovascular Risk in a Large Cohort. Am J Kidney Dis 2010;2:53-59. [
DOI:10.1053/j.ajkd.2010.01.024]
46. Grayson PC, Kim SY, LaValley M, Choi HK. Hyperuricemia and incident hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res 2011;63(1):102-10 [
DOI:10.1002/acr.20344]
47. Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, Choi HK, Heitjan DF, Albert DA. Hyperuricemia and risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2009;61(7):885-92. [
DOI:10.1002/art.24612]
48. Huang H, Huang B, Li Y, et al. Uric acid and risk of heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Heart Fail 2014;16(1):15-24. [
DOI:10.1093/eurjhf/hft132]
49. Liu X, Zhai T, Ma R, et al. Effects of uric acid-lowering therapy on the progression ofChronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ren Fail. 2018; 40:289-297. [
DOI:10.1080/0886022X.2018.1456463]
50. Madero M: High levels of uric acid linked to CKD death risk. Renal Urol News 2008. [
URL]
51. Cristobal-Garcia M, Garcia-Arroyo FE, Tapia E. Renal oxidative stress induced by long-Term hyperuricemia alters mitochondrial function and maintains systemic hypertension. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2015;2015:535686. [
DOI:10.1155/2015/535686]
52. Zazueta C, Johnson RJ, Lozada LG, et al. Soluble uric acid increases NALP3 inflammasome and interleukin-1beta expression in human primary renal proximal tubule epithelial cells through the toll-like receptor 4-mediated pathway. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2015;35(5):1347-54. [
DOI:10.3892/ijmm.2015.2148]
53. Prasad Sah OS, Qing YX. Associations between hyperuricemia and chronic kidney disease: a review. Nephrourol Mon 2015;7(3):e27233. [
DOI:10.5812/numonthly.7(3)2015.27233]
54. Li P, Zhang L, Zhang M, Zhou C, Lin N. Uric acid enhances PKC-dependent eNOS phosphorylation and mediates cellular ER stress: a mechanism for uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. Int J Mol Med 2016;37(4):989-97. [
DOI:10.3892/ijmm.2016.2491]
55. Fang JI, Wu JS, Yang YC, Wang RH, Lu FH, Chang CJ. High uric acid level associated with increased arterial stiffness in apparently healthy women. Atherosclerosis 2014;236:389-93. [
DOI:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.07.024]
56. Edwards NC, Moody WE, Yuan M, et al. Diffuse interstitial fibrosis and myocardial dysfunction in early chronic kidney disease. Am J Cardiol 2015;115(9):1311-7. [
DOI:10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.02.015]
57. Kim SY, Guevara JP, Kim KM, Choi HK, Heitjan DF, Albert DA: Hyperuricemia and coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res 2010;62(2):170-80. [
DOI:10.1002/acr.20065]
58. Grossman C, Shemesh J, Koren-Morag N, Bornstein G, Ben-Zvi I, Grossman E: Serum uric acid is associated with coronary artery calcification. J Clin Hypertens 2014;16(6):424-8. [
DOI:10.1111/jch.12313]
59. Kivity S, Kopel E, Maor E, et al. Association of serum uric acid and cardiovascular disease in healthy adults. Am J Cardiol 2013;111(8):1146-51. [
DOI:10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.12.034]
60. Zhao G, Huang L, Song M, Song Y. Baseline serum uric acid level as a predictor of cardiovascular disease related mortality and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Atherosclerosis 2013;231(1):61-8. [
DOI:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.08.023]
61. Khosla UM, Zharikov S, Finch JL, Nakagawa T, Roncal C, Mu W, Krotova K, Block ER, Prabhakar S, Johnson RJ: Hyperuricemia induces endothelial dysfunction. Kidney Int 2005;67(5):1739-42. [
DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00273.x]
62. Yu MA, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ, Kang DH: Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin angiotensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Hypertens 2010;28(6):1234-42. [
DOI:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328337da1d]
63. Kang DH, Park SK, Lee IK, Johnson RJ: Uric acid-induced C-reactive protein expression: implication on cell proliferation and nitric oxide production of human vascular cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16(12):3553-62.
5050572 [
DOI:10.1681/ASN.200]